Bretton Woods system Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Bretton Woods system - Essay Example It is undeniable that in the current debate on the international economic co-operation, we miss historical prospect completely. Or at least, we do not want to remember us the context in which was set up what we can call the great sedentary project of post-war period, not more of the role that one intended to make play at the time each great institution in their respective field. It is not a question to reconsider a period, already completed, but at least to remember, on a side, that the Agreements of Bretton Woods belong to a great project which, was not going from there to be carried out, at least until the failure of the Charter of Havana and the Cold war do not come to put at it a downtime. On the other side, which it is a question of setting up this great project, to make "the great decision" as could write it Shotwell in a book which completely reflects the spirit of its time, ''that if the crisis of the Thirties, with its batch of unemployment, dislocation of the world economy, commercial wars, etc, had sufficiently traumatized the spirits so that any idea of return to the past, with this economic order that had exerted oneself to restore in the inter-war period, is immediately evacuated. That is in question; is to set up a new order, an order which breaks with the past. And so that it was thus, it was not only necessary to rebuild the world economy on new bases, but also to rebuild the national economies on bases such renewed. At the time when is held the conference of Bretton Woods, in July 1944 let us recall it, the exit of the War is sealed since the unloading successful in Normandy. It is at the post-war period that is consequently a question of thinking, with the errors of the past which was a question of avoiding renewing, with the way in which one was going to rebuild the world economy. It is also the way in which one was going to institutionalize and widen this solidarity between the allied nations which, across the systemic differences, made so that it appeared possible to set up a new order. It is clear, when one looks at this period with a certain passing that the United States played a role determining in the installation of this new kind, but it agrees to bring many nuances with what could appear with the first access only the installation of a new hegemonic order, a kind of Pax Americana imposed. In this respect, it will be certainly interesting to return on the contents even of the American project, on the debates that one could raise at the time including in the American public opinion, as on the role played by these two large protagonists of Bretton Woods who were Keynes and White, to precisely see the project could be set up only insofar as this project rested on common principles, and that it answered common aspirations. It is under this angle that it is necessary, to approach the international order of post-war period and its prospects; while looking initially towards the United States, as it is them which mainly drew contours of this order, but also and in parallel, while looking towards the other countries, and in

Socioeconomic and political environments Essay Example for Free

Socioeconomic and political environments Essay After the Civil War, Washington returned to the family business, assisting in completing two more suspension bridges across the Ohio River (Invention Factory 2007). During this time Washington’s father, John, became interested in building a bridge across the East River. New York legislators finally realized the need for a route over the East River and passed a bill for some sort of construction. The largest restriction that the plans for the structure had to abide by was its height over the river, which was set to avoid contact with masts of ships that passes under it. This idea of a bridge was nothing new. For 60 years, different ways of linking Brooklyn and New York had been considered (Trachtenberg 1965). Soon, the city of New York set up the first ferries from Manhattan to Brooklyn in 1812 but more versatile transit was needed. The Brooklyn Bridge was erected out of economic necessity and urban sprawl (Brooke and Davidson 2006). New York City was a huge immigration hub. In the mid-1800’s, men and women began to emigrate from Europe and many settled in Brooklyn. As a result, many lived in boarding houses. Brooklyn at this time consisted mainly of Irish immigrants. Immigrants were paid very poorly considered the work they performed as it was always the most demanding and risky. From 1860 to 1870, Brooklyn’s population growth was 50 percent; the fastest growing city at the time (Trachtenberg 1965). Manhattan was the opposite of Brooklyn, in that it was primarily a business district in the mid 1800’s. Approximately 40 percent of wager earners in Brooklyn had jobs in Manhattan. The northeastern coast was a major hub for imports and manufacturing goods after the Erie Canal was built. At the time the only way to get from Manhattan to Brooklyn was by fairy which was often slow and hampered by storms. Taking the ferries tended to be very dangerous. Plans for a either a bridge or a tunnel over the East River were interrupted by the Civil War. Bridges were thought to be impossible as no materials where known to be strong enough to support the needed span. Part of the problem was that the bridge needed to be high above the channel to allow masted ships to pass beneath it, even at high tide. These details had proved insurmountable until then. A fleet of ferries shuttled people and goods across the river every day. John Roebling, with his wire rope business and history of successful suspension bridges, had a viable solution (Invention Factory 2007). The Brooklyn Bridge would use steel in its cables. Good wrought iron breaks at 30 tons where good steel of the same size breaks at 75 tons (2. 5 times stronger) (Hart 1967). While it was not trusted at the time because of its newness, the Roeblings’ had faith in its strength. At the time, suspension bridges were viewed with suspicion. Many had failed in storms or under live loads; however, none of the bridges John had built had ever failed. One of the reasons he had succeeded was that he made them very stiff, preventing flexing from wind that would plague other suspension bridge builders into the next century and most famously in the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940, more than 70 years after John. After due debate, the Brooklyn Bridge Company was formed with John Roebling as chief engineer (Invention Factory 2007). One thing that the times lent to the project was a good source of cheap labor. Poor immigrants, mainly Irish, were the ones who worked the most on the bridge. They also took the brunt of the casualties. Approximately 20-30 people died during construction and administration viewed it as necessary and unavoidable. Labor was very manual and at the time workers had very little power in politics. The Irish workers did not enjoy the choice of date, as it coincided with the Queen’s birthday. Technological Context Construction Details In December 1849, an accident mangled Roebling’s father’s left hand while undergoing testing on the innovative wire rope machinery. This new technology would set this bridge far ahead of its time, utilizing a braded configuration allowing flexibility and easier handling (Trachtenberg 1965). The Brooklyn Bridge would use steel in its cables. Good wrought iron breaks at 30 tons where good steel of the same size breaks at 75 tons (2. 5 times stronger) (Hart 1967). While steel was not trusted at the time because of its newness, the Roeblings’ had faith in its strength. At the time, steel or no steel, suspension bridges were viewed with suspicion. Many had failed in storms or under live loads; however, none of the bridges John had built had ever failed. One of the reasons he had succeeded was that he made them very stiff, preventing flexing from wind that would plague other suspension bridge builders into the next century and most famously in the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940, more than 70 years after John’s lifetime. Construction was very hazardous at that time, even for chief engineers. At the start of the project, the Brooklyn Bridge Company lost a crucial member. A ferryboat crushed John Roebling’s foot when he was on site. After having his toes amputated, during which he declined anesthetic, an infection set in and killed him (ENDEX Engineering 2007). Surprisingly there was little debate over who should succeed him. Washington Roebling was already deeply involved with the project so he was appointed successor (Invention Factory 2007). In 1872 disaster struck again. Washington himself was down in the caissons more than any one else. He was suddenly struck with what was called caisson sickness, and is what is modernly called the bends (Invention Factory 2007). This disease was not understood at the time and results from prolonged exposure to high pressures and then sudden decompression, allowing nitrogen bubbles to form in blood and possibly clog them. Washington was not the first to fall ill from the bends, in fact, people had already died of it but work proceeded on. After coming back even though clearly sick, Washington was bedridden, crippled for the remainder of the project. He was only able to stand for 10 minutes at a time when the bridge opened in 1883 (Smithsonian Associates 2004). Washington remained head engineer giving orders from his bed but the person most visible to visitors at the project was his wife, Emily. She knew just as much about the project as Washington. When a board of enquiry was put together to try to oust the bedridden head engineer she removed sufficient doubt from its members for Roebling to stay (Smithsonian Associates 2004). To say she was the head engineer would only be a very slight exaggeration. The towers that supported the span were made out of limestone, granite and concrete. Newly found techniques for making steel made it a cheap, strong metal for the suspension cables (Hart 1967). The first order of business was to sink the two giant caissons into the riverbed to support the towers (Figure 1). These were made of 12 x 12 yellow pine beams and weighed by themselves 3000 tons, having 15 foot thick roofs to keep the excavators from getting crushed by the eventually 80,000 tons of rock piled on top to make up the Towers. John found a new way to devise a foundation. The caissons were floated into place and then sunk into position, driven downward by the towers on top and crews underneath removing the actual riverbed (ENDEX Engineering 2007). Once they reached solid ground the caissons would be pumped full of grout and serve as a perfect foundation. They were undoubtedly the most tedious and difficult part of the bridge construction. Excavation methods consisted of shovel, pick, wheelbarrow, steel bar stone breakers, winches, and ten ton hydraulic jacks, eventually blasting after Washington Roebling conducted a series of experiments in the caisson. Initial rate of caisson excavation and lowering produced 6 inches per week, with a workforce of 360 people constructing the bridge (Trachtenberg 1965). Compressed air was used in the caissons to keep the water out, and the deeper they got (78 feet on the New York side, 45 feet on the Brooklyn side) the higher the pressure needed (ENDEX Engineering 2007). This was dangerous in more way than one. Fires could be catastrophic, and occasionally there would be a blowout that subsequently would allow water back in. The largest of these air releases blew rocks and mud 500 feet into the air in 1870. Fires, from using dynamite, were the worst however. One was found smoldering in the 15 feet of wood under the Brooklyn Caisson, fed by compressed air (ENDEX Engineering 2007). Eventually some timbers were replaced and the rest of the holes were pumped full of grout. The New York caisson was stopped after 78 feet not because it had reached rock but because conditions had become intolerable. As a result, to this day it rests on sand; surprisingly stable (ENDEX Engineering 2007). The Brooklyn and New York Towers were completed in 1875 and 1876 respectively (ENDEX Engineering 2007). The cables were strung after the completion of the towers. Perhaps the greatest calamity struck in the middle of this. A cable snapped, killing two men, and it was found to be very substandard (ENDEX Engineering 2007). Incidentally, the contractor who supplied the steel cable was not John Roebling’s Sons Co, which at the time was owned exclusively by Washington’s brothers. The cables were flawed. Eventually, the wire in all the cables, including 1520 suspenders and 400 diagonal stays, was approximately 3600 miles long (ENDEX Engineering 2007). Personal Characteristics Washington fought in the civil war both on the ground as a military observer from hot air balloons. Washington served at Gettysburg with distinction on Little Round Top and was at the siege of Richmond (Invention Factory 2007). He became very noble and selfless, though cocky at times, during the Civil War. Perhaps the most important part of his war career, however, was that he met his wife to be, Emily Warren, because he served under her brother, General G.K. Warren (ENDEX Engineering 2007). He ended the war at the rank of a Colonel. After the war he helped his father build the Cincinnati-Covington Bridge (now called John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge) before the Brooklyn Bridge. Despite many the huge hurdles of the Brooklyn Bridge project, among which was the fact that Washington became horribly sick and bedridden for most of the actual building from decompression sickness when the huge caissons for the twin towers were sunk in the Hudson riverbed (hence the traditional term ‘caisson sickness’), he managed to oversee all stages of its construction. He did this only with the help of his wife Emily Warren Roebling, who almost every day visited the site and reported to him and who some felt built the bridge herself (The Great Engineers, 1967). The Brooklyn Bridge was opened May 24th 1883 by the president of the United States U. S. Grant, to fireworks and one cent ticket passes to cross. Apparently it was a great relief to Washington Roebling as his health began to slowly improve. After the completing this engineering marvel in 1883, Washington lived a relatively quiet life, mostly as a result of being still partially crippled from his illness, and when his wife died in 1903 he remarried in 1908. He spent much of his time collecting minerals, which was his one great hobby, eventually having 16,000 specimens and ending up in the Museum of Natural History’s mineral and gem collection (Smithsonian Associates 2004). This hobby added balance to his life and probably kept him from accomplishing very much else as it took so much of his time. He outlived his wife Emily and remarried. He became president of his fathers company, John Roebling’s Sons, in 1921 at the age of 79. He brought incredible energy to the position, modernizing the factory with electricity and adding a galvanized wire section. The business prospered under his leadership until 1926, when Washington Roebling died. When one has hobbies such as athletics help keeps a healthy time management of school work and fun down time. College is one of the few times were one can have fun. There is a time and place to enjoy your hobbies but to enjoy these hobbies one must put in an honest day’s work. Conclusion When the Brooklyn Bridge opened to traffic on May 24th 1883, it was one of the grandest engineering marvels of that century in North America. The construction was composed of many firsts. Despite innumerable setbacks, including the untimely death of the original designer of the plan, John A. Roebling, and the crippling of his son, Washington Roebling, who succeeded him in the chief engineer duties it, was finished in 14 years, having been commenced January 2, 1870. At the time of completion it was 50% longer than any other suspension bridge, it was the first to use steel cables, much stronger than hemp or cast iron previously used. The towers that supported the four main cables (each of which supports a total dead live load of about 6 million pounds) for the span were the largest stone and masonry objects of their kind rising approximately 276 feet above the high water mark (Smithsonian Associates 2004). The challenges of this are hard to fathom in today’s world of reinforced concrete. Appendices Figure 1. Sinking the Caisson into the Riverbed Table 2: Brooklyn Bridge Innovations   1st suspension bridge to use steel 1st suspension bridge to twist the wire†¢ 1st bridge to use pneumatic caissons 1st to use dynamite in bridge construction   1st female field engineer   Longest bridge constructed   Tallest structure in the western hemisphere   Considered to be the â€Å"8th Wonder of the World†. Bibliography â€Å"Biography – Invention Factory 2007. † The Smithsonian Associates Civil War E-Mail Newsletter, Vol 3, No 9. Smithsonian Associates 2004. http://civilwarstudies. org/articles/Vol_3/roebling. htm Brooke and Davidson 2006, Kathleen L. , and Frank P. Davidson. Building the World. Vol. 1. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood P, 2006. 240. Brooklyn Bridge: Facts, History, and Information. ENDEX Engineering, Inc. 5 May 1998. 29 Mar. 2007 http://www. endex. com/gf/buildings/bbridge/bbridgefacts. htm. Hart 1967, Ivor B. The Great Engineers. Freeport, N. Y. : Books for Libraries P, 1967. Trachtenberg, Alan. Brooklyn Bridge: Fact and Symbol. New York, New York: Oxford UP, 1965. 11. Invention Factory 2007. John a. Reoblings Sons Co. 28 Mar. 2007 http://www. inventionfactory. com/history/RHAgen/warbio. html. Wikipedia Update: April 1, 2007 at 8:13 p. m. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Washington_Roebling.

Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSK Modulation Demodulation Computer Science Essay

Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSK Modulation Demodulation Computer Science Essay This experiment is based on the Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) modulation/demodulation technique. The aim of the experiment is to gain familiarity with the components of a simple data transmission system, gain experience using an experimental communication system and studying its performance under the influence of white noise and also, to compare experimental results with theoretical deductions. Bandpass modulation, of which BPSK is a type, is a process whereby, a sinusoid usually called a carrier wave, is modulated or have its characteristics changed by a digital pulse baseband signal in other to enable wireless based transmission. In BPSK modulation, the phase of the carrier waveform is shifted to either 0Â ° or 180Â ° by the modulating data signal. To effectively model the transmission channel, the AWGN generator is used which adds the effect of noise to the signal at the receiver in other to properly characterise what obtains in real systems. SNR measurements are taken after the noise is added before the receiver and results of each stage of the experiment are presented. 2.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results obtained from the experiment and brief discussions are now presented. 2.1 The frequency of the waveform was measured to be 1.493kHz 2.2 The amplitude of the waveform was measured to be 3.608V 2.3 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGADesktopLAB RESULTSPart 2.bmp Fig. 1: Square Waveform from NE555 timer circuit. The timer circuit produces a sequence of ones and zeros which together with the resistors and capacitor, produces a square waveform. It can be observed that the square top and bottom are not perfectly straight but with ripples, this is due to the resonance effect presented by the capacitor. Also, the rising pattern of the top is due to the voltage rise time in the capacitor. 2.4 The frequency of the message sequence is measured to be 374Hz 2.5 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 4 5.bmp Fig. 2: Message sequence at the output of the frequency divider. The SN74LS74 integrated circuit implements a second order frequency divider, 2n (n=2). Hence the frequency of the timer circuit is divided by four. Hence, this is also evident in the frequency of the message sequence in 2.4 above. 2.6 The cut-off frequency of the 2nd order Butterworth low pass filter is given by; The cut-off frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of the transfer function drops to 0.7071 of its maximum value which represents the point at which the power in the circuit is 3dB less than the maximum value. 2.7 The frequency of the sinusoid at the output of the filter was measured to be 1.328kHz. 2.8 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.Wordpart 8.jpg Fig. 3: Output of the first and second Butterworth LPF. A B A Output of first filter; B Output of second filter The Butterworth lowpass filter is used to generate the sinusoidal carrier required for the baseband signal. The Butterworth filter has a gentle roll-off, has no ripple in the pass or stop band hence, it has a monotonic response. To maximise the smoothness of the sinusoid, we use two of such filters in series. 2.9 The RC highpass filter is used to remove the DC components of the sinusoid (since it will only allow frequencies from the cut off frequency upwards) and convert it into a non-return to zero one. The cut-off frequency is given by: 2.10 The frequency of the modulated signal was measured to be 1.408kHz. 2.11 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 11.bmp Fig. 4: Output of the RC filter and the inverting amplifier circuits. A B A RC filter output B Inverting amplifier output The outputs of the RC filter and the inverting amplifier differ by a phase shift of 180Â °, to fulfil the requirement for BPSK where we need antipodal modulated signals. Since the gain of the inverting amplifier is unity, there is no change to the amplitude of the inverted carrier. 2.12 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 10 12.bmp Fig. 5: BPSK signal at the output of the adder circuit. A The analogue switch produces a 0Â ° shifted sinusoid when the message signal is high (a 1) and a 180Â ° shifted sinusoid when the message signal is low (a 0). The two outputs streams are combined in the adder circuit which has a gain of unity so that no modification is made to the signal amplitude. The result of this is a stream of 1s and 0s represented by the sinusoidal waveform in fig. 5 above. Point A depicts the sudden phase change as the bits changes to connote a transition from a high to a low and vice-versa. If we begin with a 1, then the fig. 4 would represent 10101010. 2.13 The bandwidth of the noise signal is 500kHz. 2.14 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 14.jpg Fig. 6: BPSK signal with white noise. The AWGN channel helps to simulate what can typically obtain in real communication environments and it was observed that in real systems, the signal is not really as elegant as presented in fig. 5 but the addition of noise means the receiver will require some form of intelligence and signal processing in other to correctly detect the transmitted message. 2.15C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 15.jpg Fig. 7: BPSK noisy signal at output of RC lowpass filter. The cut-off frequency of this filter is given by; hence it will cut off signals above 15.92kHz. It was observed that after the application of this filter, the noise level was significantly reduced as evident comparing fig. 6 and 7, since the noise contained a large amount of frequency components higher than 15.92kHz due to its bandwidth of 500kHz. 2.16 The signal at the output of the integrator takes the shape of a sawtooth waveform. This is because integrating a square waveform produces a sawtooth waveform. 2.17 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 16 17.bmp Fig. 8: Output of the integrator circuit. A B The multiplier and integrator circuit represents a matched filter implementation at the receiver. Point A represents the zero point i.e the beginning of a new symbol or bit in this case, when the integrator is re-set. As such, when a 1 changes to a 0, we have a re-set to zero point and the direction of the triangular shape changes to the opposite. Point B is the integration phase proper. It is not smooth due to the effect of noise in the system. Also, the rise is a direct result of the capacitor charging. 2.18 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 18.jpg Fig. 9: Pulse application to integrator. A B A Integrator output; B Reset Pulse As displayed on fig. 8 above, the reset pulse is applied to the integrator at the symbol transition instant which is seen to be the beginning of every half cycle to reset the integrator to zero. 2.19 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 19a.png Fig. 10: The Reference Signal C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.Word19b.jpg Fig. 11: The Sampling Pulse C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 19c.jpg Fig. 12: The Reset Pulse The reference signal is obtained from the SN74LS74 frequency divider of the transmitter thus it is the originally transmitted message sequence. The sampling and reset instances are done at the same time that is at the half cycle. 2.20 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 20.jpg Fig. 13: Output of the Comparator. This is where the original baseband signal is regenerated. From fig. 8, when the output of the integrator is positive, an output voltage of 5 volts is produced at the comparator and when the integrator output is negative, a 0 volt output is obtained. This resulted in fig. 13 above showing the alternating 5 and 0 volts or 1s and 0s which depicts our detected signal. The frequency of the detected signal is 1.419kHz. 2.21 The length of the delayed version of the data symbol produced at the receiver is 1.804ms 2.22 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 21 and 22 Greeen channel 2 yellow channel 1.bmp Fig. 14: The Delayed pulse and Original data signal. A B A- Delayed Pulse; B Original Pulse Comparing the original data signal against the delayed version, it is observed that though they are of the same period, B has longer duration positive half cycle while A compensates with a longer negative half cycle. Also, the time delay between them is about a half cycle. 2.23 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 23 yellow delay green comparator.bmp Fig. 15: Input Signals to the XOR circuit. A B A Delayed original signal; B Detected signal The detected signal B is compared against the delayed version of the original signal A, because B generally, B would have experienced some delay and hence to effectively ascertain if an error occurred, its best to compare it against a delayed original as represented by A. The exclusivity of the circuit lies in the fact that when A B are the same, a 0 will be produced while when they are different denoting an error, a 1 will be produced. 2.24 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 24 green 2 yellow 1.jpgFig. 16: Input Signals to the first NAND gate. A B A Sampling Pulse; B XOR Output A NAND gate will only produce a zero when both inputs are high. Hence a zero is obtained when the sampling instant coincides with a high output from the XOR circuit. 2.25 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 25 yellow chn1 5v dc green chn2 1st input.png Fig. 17: Input Signals to the second NAND gate. A B C A Input 5Vdc; B Output of first NAND gate; C Zero point Since a NAND gate will produce a high when both inputs are not the same and when they are both 0, a 5V dc (always high or 1) is applied to one of the inputs and the output of the first NAND gate to the other. Hence, at the points where B comes down to zero (C), the output of the NAND gate will record a high which implies an error has occurred. 2.26 To estimate the BER; Where Vs (rms value of signal amplitude) =514mV, Vn (rms value of noise amplitude) = 0-10dB W (AWGN channel bandwidth) = 500kHz T (modulated Signal period) = 656.25ÃŽÂ ¼s SNR received signal to noise ratio BER bit error rate or error probability. Table 1 below presents the values. Table 1: Summary of Results Fig. 18: BER Performance Plot 3.0 CONCLUSION The BER performance plot of fig. 18 shows that the behaviour of the experimental system is within the bounds of predicted theoretical results. For instance, as quoted in the lecture notes, at SNR= 10.4dB, the BER is about 1.510-6. From fig.18 above, a similar point, of SNR=10.3806dB gives a BER of 1.48810-6. Hence confirming the accuracy of the results obtained from the experiment. The plot confirms that as the signal-to-noise ratio increases, the error probability reduces in line with conventional knowledge. In addition, the process of using a baseband signal to modulate the phase of a sinusoid was observed, converting it into a bandpass signal for transmission ease. Also, the use of Additive White Gaussian Noise to simulate the channel provides an insight into what might be expected in a live system environment, under varying degrees of noise exposure. Finally, because the received data sequence will most likely be displaced from its true positions as demonstrated experimentally, the use of a time delayed version of the original transmitted sequence to compare and check for errors was justified.

House of the Spirits, Major Motifs Essay -- English Literature

House of the Spirits, Major Motifs Politics Pedro Tercero brought Socialism to the peasants of Tres Marias, and got Jaime very interested in justice, equality, and the peasant movement. The peasants want their feelings to be heard and want a socialist style of government, but they are afraid that Esteban Trueba will find out and kick them out of the estate. The people of Tres Marias have no desire to vote because they know that the ballots are changed. Pedro Tercero tries to make the people understand that this election will be different; there will be people from the socialist party watching the ballot taking and the ballot boxes will be sealed. The people of Tres Marias are beginning to understand how their problems can be solved, and how people should really be living. Esteban Trueba however, is on the other side of the political wings he needs full control over the peasants so his estate will function, he believes that the peasants can’t rule themselves. If his people vote for a socialist government he can’t kick them out because then he’ll have to kick everyone out, he will do more harm to himself through anger. Power Men are losing power. Jean de Satigny is handsome and a French count from all around the world, unlike other men, he has experienced what the world has to offer. He is civilized and has lots of money to flaunt to his lover, but even though he has so much he can’t get Blanca to marry him. Someone with so much has no power over the women he wants. Esteban has no power over Clara when he needs it most, and when he wants complete control over her she can avoid him or hide from him. He tries to go back to raping peasants, but he can’t lift them up onto his saddle because his age. H... ...ut Esteban doesn’t understand the unexplainable attraction of love and sees it as bondage of two people from the same class. The love between Blanca and Pedro Tercero is the strongest love in the whole book. The devotion of the two to stay together through all the years is something close to magic. Starting out from playing in mud and sleeping naked under the dinner table on top of each other like two fitting puzzle pieces, perfect. Then through the years getting more and more serious until their love cannot be separated by Esteban’s skeptical morals. They start to sneak out at night to meet by the river where they embrace and make love ending in the same position from when they first met. The love between the two lovers is natural not between class, money, family, or looks, but between two people who found love and will never let anyone take it from them.

How Far Was the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905?

How far was the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, responsible for the outbreak of the 1905 Revolution? The Russo- Japanese War, although an important rationale for the outbreak of the 1905 Revolution , was caused by many other problems which made a foundation for the War as well as the Revolution. Due to the War the economy suffered, adding on to the problems that Russia was already facing from a lack of preceding modernization, making this very important as the majority were affected causing them to revolt.Furthermore, Russia lost against Japan in the War portraying the Tsar as weaker compared to how he was already viewed by the population, making this another very important factor as the Russians felt they needed a stronger leader and in distress turned to extremist political parties. In addition another important factor is, the extremist parties in particular, felt that the autocratic rule of the Tsar was causing Russia to suffer, seeing that the people were not being heard resulti ng in them gaining extremist views and rebel.The Russo- Japanese War was a short term factor, which was only partly responsible for the outbreak of the Revolution. The Russian military lost miserably to the Japanese and this was a huge blow to the Russians as due to censorship, they had always conceived the Japanese to be inferior and weaker, making them certain that they would win. The defeat was seen as national humiliation, helping to cause unrest towards the Government and making the Tsar look weak, giving encouragement to the revolutionaries.In addition the overall cost of the War was very high, meaning that the already suffering Russian economy was plummeted further into trouble resulting in the tarnishing of the state finances made by Witte. However, it mainly helped to prolong the Revolution as many of the events of the war took place after the Revolution had begun. Long before the Russo-Japanese War had begun, Russia was still facing Economic turbulences and this is one of the main contributors to the outbreak of the Revolution.A revolt by the Peasants who were discontent due to only small individual plots for each family being distributed and bad harvests meant that there was massive industrial growth, resulting in an economy boom and building expectations of a better life for peasants . An industrial ‘slump’ caused social discontent of economic misfortune as Russian peasants and workers forced the uncertainty of poverty and poor living conditions. This caused major resentment to the Tsar both in industry and agriculture with his social and economic regime.In addition, due to Russia being backwards, even under Witte the Russian economy had failed to reach or exceed the output in production of goods as the other Great Powers although being the largest continuous land Empire. The low production in goods meant that Russia’s trade also suffered. The overall state of the economy meant many problems which were causing much unrest such a s poor living conditions were left unresolved and the resentment towards the Tsar continued to grow. Russia was under autocratic rule and this is also one of the main contributors to the outbreak of the 1905 Revolution.Autocratic rule was disliked by many as many people believed that under the Autocratic rule Russia was suffering and there needed to be a change in the way the country was led in order for the country to progress. This caused many political groups to gain extremist views. The extremist groups such as the Social Revolutionaries became very popular as they wanted to give political power to the peasants, who made up 80% of the total population and solving their problems would mean that the whole of Russia would benefit greatly.This shows that the groups were becoming more organized and strategic in the way they worked as they were targeting the biggest problems, in addition in order to gain publicity and get their message and views across, political groups were responsib le for over 2000 assassinations which included the Interior Minister, Plehve and the Tsars Uncle, Grand Duke Sergei, the Governor of Moscow.Furthermore, the demand for political reform continued growing as just like the Russian economy, Russian politics was also backwards and unlike other European states, Russia had elected bodies being the Zemstva, instead of an elected national parliament. This meant that the Russian population had no say in how the country was run which angered many and in turn meant that they supported extremist political groups in an attempt to force political change. Alexander ii’s reforms were also partly responsible for the outbreak of the War.Although the Emancipation of Serfs Act was passed in 1861,the peasants were still not completely free as they could not leave their villages without permission from the elders. The fact that they also had to pay redemption payments for 49 years added to their animosity towards the Tsar. In addition, landowners h ad to sell their land to the Government, meaning that they were in great debt and like the peasants their resentment towards the Tsar continued to grow. Due to Russia’s economical state many of these problems continued to grow as did the resentment.The weaknesses of Nicholas ii, although not as important as the other factors such as economic and political, also influenced the outbreak of the Revolution. As Russia was under autocratic rule, the majority needed to be under his control. This was very hard for Nicholas as he was very shy and timid, not qualities the Russians admired in their leader. His image was also affected by events such as the Russo-Japanese War as the result meant that Russia’s pride was damaged. Bloody Sunday also affected how he was viewed by his Country as he had been accused on turning against his own people.It was also said that he had no political knowledge, which many people blamed for Russia’s turbulences. Therefore people saw him unfi t to rule. Bloody Sunday was only minutely responsible for the outbreak of the Revolution as it was merely a spark. Although it was only a short term cause it had a damaging effects that angered many. Although the Tsar was not present at the time it still harmed his popularity as he was no longer the ‘Little Father’ who was on their side and would listen to them if they petitioned.He had destroyed the trust causing them to revolt. In conclusion, the Russo- Japanese War, although important as it highlighted and added to many of the issues already present in Russia, was merely a factor that prolonged the Revolution. The most important factors were the Economical and Political, as they showed Russia’s latent issues whereas the War made people more aware. The Russo- Japanese War itself was a problem that helped merely to prolong a revolution that would have occurred even without it.

Titanic Essay Example

Titanic Essay Example Titanic Essay Titanic Essay Project Paper This year I did my project on the titanic, the lost ship wreck at sea. I chose my project because the titanic is very interesting to me, a ship that was supposed to be unsinkable actually sunk. When people thought the titanic was unsinkable the only reason they thought that was because of what the person in charge of the whole project said it was. But the white star line never actually claimed that the titanic was unsinkable. People still believed that she was unsinkable but when the accident happened they started to doubt that she really was unsinkable. But after the people saw what happened to the titanic they started to not believe what they were being told. The white star said it was practically unsinkable, not totally unsinkable. What happened that day was very tragic, many people lost their lives due to miscalculations of the crew. Its sad how many people died on that ship. That why they dont want to retrieve the parts of the ship wreck because its like a grave yard of souls. Some cool facts about the titanic are that the titanic was heading to new York as there final destination. years prior to the titanic ship wreck the name of the boat in the book Titan was almost the same design of the titanic and was labled unsinkable. But the only thing that has the titanic labled unsinkable was that the people who made the titanic said it was realitivley unsinkable. Throught out Titanics making there were a few mistakes, they didnt put enough life boats on borad to hold all the passengers. Instead they went the easy way out. If I was on the titanic that day I really dont know what I would have done. If I as one of those people who died on the titanic then I would have been very upset to know that there werent enough life boats for everyone, and that we would have had to use them. The titanic had 2223 passengers and 1570 of those people died. Meaning 653 people lived through the titanic. If you think about it its more than half that died Though Titanics strucuture was built it was lacking some of the essential parts. They could have used a stronger metal. Once again to label a ship unsinkable is a little bit much. I say that because every ship has the chance of sinking, thats Just a art of floating on the ocean. If I would have been think about going on the titanic I would have check how many life boats were on borad. If only people could hva epredicted what was going to happen that night. A lot of lives could have been saved, but that didnt happen. The titanic had the first ever swimming pool on a boat! Now these days they have spas and hpt tubs and waterparks! Sounds fun to me. Though the titanic has sunk dosnt mean that It will forgotten. The souls that remain with her will aways be there, no matter what we do. Titanic By macharwes

The good life chapter 5 Essay

The good life chapter 5 Essay The good life chapter 5 Essay Chapter Summary – Chapter 5 â€Å"Do Unto Others..† This chapter greatly explores the idea of living the good life by presenting its audience with the understanding that, in order to live the good life, one must not only live to please oneself, but to please those around them too. Mackay explores this idea when he says, â€Å"The whole idea of a good life will evaporate if we focus on ourselves, and what we get out of it†. He emphasizes the fact that the good life consists of living a life for others, - â€Å"Do unto others as you would have others do unto you†. The author also explores the ideas of the good life by relating it to morals, goodness, solitary and religion and the Golden Rule. The good life is one defined by our ability for unselfishness, the quality of our relationships and our willingness to connect with others in a useful way. The ‘true’ goodness of life that Mackay wishes to inform us of is represented through the ideas. Morals are explored as Mackay tries to show how many of us confuse emotions with morals, when it comes to moral judgments. To do this Mackay uses a vignette called, ‘Henry’s Little Secret’ as it strongly plays on the viewers’ emotions towards morality. The anecdote is used to give the readers a clearer realization of the fact that more often, than not, one mixes their mentions with their moral judgments, which in fact leaves the situation judged bias. Mackay’s main aim in doing this is to present the idea that everyone has their own definition of a good life due to their own moral values towards situations. Mackay also presents the idea of goodness in this chapter, as he tries to further express the fact that the good life is slightly different to each person if you explore it further than living a life for others. He does this by pointing out that many people have different definitions of ‘good’, and that us, as a society, often have to compare good with bad to justify its ‘goodness’. Mackay does this when he says, â€Å"It’s just that these things aren’t what the good life is about†. We also learn that solitary is not a way to live a good life, and that a life lived along is a life not lived ‘good’. He does this to encourage the idea of living a life for others as he says, â€Å"You can lead a blameless, exciting or passionate life on your own, but you cant lead a good life on your own, because morality is about our interactions.† He incorporates religion with the idea of a good life, as he tries to represent it as the main body holding the Golden Rule – the fact that we think of ourselves as members of society rather than individuals. He shows that the idea

Quotes From Hemingways The Sun Also Rises

Quotes From Hemingways The Sun Also Rises The Sun Also Rises brought Ernest Hemingway fame and fortune. The novel became one of the most well-known books of the lost generation. The story was largely based on the lives of Hemingway and his friends in Paris following World War I. Here are a few quotes from this famous book by Ernest Hemingway. Quotes From the Epigraph Through Chapter Five of The Sun Also Rises You are all a lost generation. I rather liked him and evidently she led him quite a life. Nobody ever lives their life all the way up except bull-fighters. Listen, Robert, going to another country doesnt make any difference. Ive tried all that. You cant get away from yourself by moving from one place to another. Theres nothing to that. This was Brett that I had felt like crying about. Then I thought of her walking up the street and stepping into the car, as I had last seen her, and of course in a little while I felt like hell again. It is awfully easy to be hard-boiled about everything in the daytime, but at night is another thing. Quotes From Chapter Six Through Chapter Ten of The Sun Also Rises Youre not a moron. Youre only a case of arrested development. Dont have scenes with your young ladies. Try not to. Because you cant have scenes without crying, and then you pity yourself so much you cant remember what the other persons said. We all ought to make sacrifices for literature. Look at me. Im going to England without a protest. All for literature. [S]he took great pride in telling me which of my guests were well brought up, which were of good family, who were sportsmen, a French word pronounced with the accent on the men. The only trouble was that people who did not fall into any of those three categories were very liable to be told there was no one home, chez Barnes. This wine is too good for toast-drinking, my dear. You dont want to mix emotions up with a wine like that. You lose the taste. I was a little ashamed, and regretted that I was such a rotten Catholic, but realized there was nothing I could do about it, at least for a while, and maybe never, but that anyway it was a grand religion, and I only wished I felt religious and maybe I would the next time. I have never seen a man in civil life as nervous as Robert Cohnnor as eager. I was enjoying it. It was lousy to enjoy it, but I felt lousy. Cohn had a wonderful quality of bringing out the worst in anybody. I was blind, unforgivingly jealous of what had happened to him. The fact that I took it as a matter of course did not alter that any. I certainly did hate him. Quotes From Chapter Eleven Through Chapter Nineteen of The Sun Also Rises Youre an expatriate. Youve lost touch with the soil. You get precious. Fake European standards have ruined you. You drink yourself to death. You become obsessed by sex. You spend all your time talking, not working. You are an expatriate, see. You hang around cafà ©s. For one who had aficion he could forgive anything. At once he forgave me all my friends. Without his ever saying anything they were simply a little something shameful between us, like the spilling open of the horses in bull-fighting. It was like certain dinners I remember from the war. There was much wine, an ignored tension, and a feeling of things coming that you could not prevent happening. Under the wine I lost the disgusted feeling and was happy. It seemed they were all such nice people. I thought I had paid for everything. Not like the woman pays and pays and pays. No idea of retribution or punishment. Just exchange of values. You gave something up and got something else. Or you worked for something. You paid some way for everything that was any good. Enjoying living was learning to get your moneys worth and knowing when you had it. That was morality; things that made you disgusted afterward. No, that must be immorality. The things that happened could only have happened during a fiesta. Everything became quite unreal finally and it seemed as though nothing could have any consequences. It seemed out of place to think of consequences during the fiesta. I hate his damned suffering. Oh, darling, please stay by me. Please stay by me and see me through this. In  bull-fighting  they speak of the terrain of the bull and the terrain of the bull-fighter. As long as a bull-fighter stays in his own terrain he is comparatively safe. Each time he enters into the terrain of the bull he is in great danger. Belmonte, in his best days, worked always in the terrain of the bull. This way he gave the sensation of coming tragedy. Because he did not look up to ask if it pleased he did it all for himself inside, and it strengthened him, and yet he did it for her, too. But he did not do it for her at any loss to himself. That seemed to handle it. That was it. Send a girl off with one man. Introduce her to another to go off with him. Now go and bring her back. And sign the wire with love. That was it all right. [T]he  end  of the line. All trains finish there. They dont go on anywhere. You know it makes one feel rather good deciding not to be a bitch. Isnt it pretty to think so?

Science and politics Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Science and politics - Term Paper Example Undeniably, world leaders and industry managers still very much depend on oil for their major industries. In the end, oil is hardly something they can do away with; and the oil companies know this. For which reason, most oil companies and other interest groups contend that government authorities must oversee and must be involved in cleaning up oil spills. They further contend that the government also has a responsibility to the environment to assist in the clean-up and to use its resources in order to speed up these clean-up processes. However, most taxpayers disagree with this argument. They believe that the oil companies alone should bear the cost and responsibility of cleanup and that taxpayer’s money should not be spent in order to clear-out these oil spills. This is an issue which has yet to be resolved. In an attempt to establish some resolution to this issue, this paper shall research materials which support the argument that, the government must oversee and be involved in the cleanup of oil spills. Discussion As soon as oil spills into the ocean, it first spreads on the water’s surface and the speed and the density by which is spreads depends also on the density and composition of the oil spilled (Water Encyclopedia, 2011). The oil spilled may be cohesive or it may break up depending on the movement of the water. Rougher water movements tend to break the oil slick and cause it to cover a larger territory of ocean, including coastal areas, and some marine and terrestrial habitats (Water Encyclopedia, 2011). Oil containing volatile organic compounds partially evaporates and it leaves about 20 % or 40% of the mass denser and more resistant to flow. A small amount of oil dissolves in water and it can then disperse undetected or form a thick mousse with the water (Water Encyclopedia, 2011). A portion of the oil may then sink with particulates and the rest may congeal into sticky tar balls. Eventually, oil waste deteriorates and breaks down thro ugh photolysis and biodegradation. Once oil reaches shorelines, it then interacts with the beach sand, rocks, gravel, and vegetation. It causes contamination and erosion of these shorelines and sediments (Water Encyclopedia, 2011). Once the beach sand becomes contaminated, it is then unable to protect and support normal vegetation in the shorelines. Rocks with oil residues can also be toxic to coastal wildlife as it can poison the coastline and organic substrates, thereby interrupting the food chain upon which fishes and coastal creatures depend and upon which their reproduction is based (Water Encyclopedia, 2011). Wildlife and other sea creatures, as well as mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds can also be poisoned by oil residues. In fact, the Exxon Valdez oil spill caused the death of an estimated number of 100,000 to 300,000 birds in the area of Prince William Sound Alaska (Piatt, et.al., 1990). Mere ingestion of oil can be poisonous to animals; it can smother these creature s and destroy their thermal insulation (Wells, Butler, and Hughes, 1995). Oil can also damage their reproductive systems and disrupt the pattern of their usual behaviors. In the long-term setting, such damage can cause such species and populations to change or to totally disappear. Even when oil spills have â€Å"dissipated† over miles of ocean and coastlines, their impact on the environment often remains.

Strategic Human Resource Management - Assignment

Strategic Human Resource Management - - Assignment Example Other major functions include the recruiting of employees, staffing the departments that are short staffed and also focuses on employee development through organizing trainings to enhance employee competence at the work place (Wolper 2004, p. 286). The other critical role of the human resource department is to maintain the employees through manpower planning by ascertaining how many employees an organization would need in the future and the skills that they should have (Krishnaveni 2008, p. 102). Based on this, there are varying views on the role of a human resource function and those that practice it in which this essay will delve into them and also analyze how they can be able to add value and enhance the effectiveness of an organization. The human resource function under the guidance of the human resource manager ensures that an organization implements policies and procedures across all the departments to ensure that there is cohesiveness in the same. As the name suggests, this function manages the most important asset to an organization, which is the work capital in which most of these carry out the same functions as much as they may differ in size and in structure. Ideally, this is the most basic function of the human resource department because a company cannot function without having a capable and competent workforce that is able to execute all the tasks effectively. According to the Information Resources Management Association (2012, p. 373), this department is tasked with creating job descriptions to which new employees are to occupy and also create the responsibilities that they would be charged with so as to foster the success of an organization. As part of the recruitment, the HR department has the responsibility of interviewing and hiring the right people for the job descriptions that they have created depending on their skills and competencies that the

Death and Dying Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Death and Dying - Essay Example fficult to withdraw life sustaining treatment after it has started than to withhold life sustaining treatment from the start because once started, the hospital also assumes and shares the responsibility of withdrawing the treatment with the party that asks for it. Karen Quilan’s case provides evidence for it. The matter was complicated as the hospital challenged Karen’s parents’ decision legally. Having lost the case, Karen’s parents had to file another case in the New Jersey Supreme Court to finally have their wish granted. The risk that the patient would die upon withdrawal of the treatment makes this move very controversial and critical. When the treatment is not given from the start, the tendency of the life sustaining treatment to save the patient remains unjudged, so the party might get the benefit of doubt. I personally think that health care professionals should not give euthanasia even if the patient asks for it because it is essentially assisted suicide and is considered a sin in my religion. I have religious basis of having this

Japanese Haiku Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Japanese Haiku - Research Paper Example Based on Zen Buddhism (Purves), the genre of haiku as a means of poetic expression emerged as far back as in the 14th century, originally being a subgenre of traditional Japanese Waka poetry inspired by Chinese models of versification. At that time, this poetic form was referred to as hokku, yet later, in the 16th century, it acquired the shape of a separate genre and got its modern name from the poet Masaoka Shiki in the 19th century. One of the earliest remarkable haiku poets is Sogi, who lived between 1421 and 1502 and was a Zen monk from Kioto (Fig. 1). The poet writing haiku is commonly referred to as haijin, and Matsuo Basho is considered the most famous haijin in Japanese poetic history. The word â€Å"hokku† initially meant the first stanza of another poetic form, renga, or the first stanza of tanka poetry. However, feudal Edo period lasting from 1615 to 1868 brought huge popularity to it and made it a self-sufficient genre (Sher), which was later renamed by Masaoka Shiki. Gilbert and Yoneoka provide a quotation of R. H. Blyth describing the peculiar qualities of Haiku that – according to his statement – made this poetic form unique and so popular: â€Å"It is not merely the brevity by which [the haiku] isolates a particular group of phenomena from all the rest; nor its suggestiveness, through which it reveals a whole world of experience. It is not only in its remarkable use of the season word, by which it gives us a feeling of a quarter of the year; nor its faint all-pervading humour. Its peculiar quality is its self-effacing, self-annihilative nature, by which it enables us, more than any other form of literature, to grasp the thing-in-itself†. Therefore, it could be stated that the main peculiarity of haiku lies in its succinct nature and intense effect produced on the reader. Haiku as a rather free and expressive poetic form contributed to democratization of Japanese poetry and

SECURITY ISSUES IN DELIVERING INFRASTRUCTURE AS A SERVICE IN CLOUD Literature review - 1

SECURITY ISSUES IN DELIVERING INFRASTRUCTURE AS A SERVICE IN CLOUD COMPUTING AND BUSINESS - Literature review Example The theme of cloud computing is that all computational resources and assets are offered by the cloud service providers to the remote users all around the globe as a service. It does not require the users to have proper knowledge and proficiency in a particular domain or technology in order to manage the resources and user can access them through internet. Cloud computing is a fairly innovative computing model and has been prominent in the field of information technology over past years. The cloud computing model enables the subscribers to utilize the computing resources and assets in the time of need, without investing higher amount of money and frees them from the worries about the complication involved in adopting other options. Nevertheless the huge number of implementations that have gotten so much higher reputation among the community of IT are oriented towards a particular business and are commercial so it does not supports the users with complex and bigger requirements and rel atively little financial resources. (Vincenzo D. Cunsolo et al, 2010, Juan D. O sorio, 2012) Cloud computing that is a modern business paradigm, involves the provision of extraordinarily scalable computing assets as a service to individual subscribers or the organizations. Companies are now adopting a trend of replacing the older IT infrastructure by consuming the ‘Infrastructure as service’ model offered by cloud computing paradigm in order to get better scalability of computing resources and to make lesser operating cost. The fundamental business of an infrastructure as a service cloud is to set up an instance of virtual machines, on-demand, for agreed period of time. The specifications (e.g. total memory storage, required operating system, executables) of the virtual machines are decided in a agreement between the cloud service provider and the consumer and service is usually provided according to some measure of QoS(

Natural Magic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Natural Magic - Essay Example Bauer (1997) posited that â€Å"from Shapins perspective, the historical notion of the Scientific Revolution which is commonly taught to school children as more or less a cataclysmic event in which the modern world of science/rationality defeats the medieval world of religion/occult is incorrectly portrayed† (p.1). Modern science today would prove most of the knowledge of these fields as superstition, but there should be some credit given. It could be said that without these ancient forms of pseudoscience, modern day science may have been lost for good. Modern astronomy owes its existence to astrology in understanding how the universe outside our world affects us. Alchemy can be linked to the modern science of chemistry. However, the most crucial value of these pseudo-sciences is the model it has in getting results through experimentation, trials and testing, observation and making hypothesis. While not intentionally having a scientific nature, these pseudo-sciences helped developed the foundation in which modern sciences can build

Japanese Haiku Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Japanese Haiku - Research Paper Example Based on Zen Buddhism (Purves), the genre of haiku as a means of poetic expression emerged as far back as in the 14th century, originally being a subgenre of traditional Japanese Waka poetry inspired by Chinese models of versification. At that time, this poetic form was referred to as hokku, yet later, in the 16th century, it acquired the shape of a separate genre and got its modern name from the poet Masaoka Shiki in the 19th century. One of the earliest remarkable haiku poets is Sogi, who lived between 1421 and 1502 and was a Zen monk from Kioto (Fig. 1). The poet writing haiku is commonly referred to as haijin, and Matsuo Basho is considered the most famous haijin in Japanese poetic history. The word â€Å"hokku† initially meant the first stanza of another poetic form, renga, or the first stanza of tanka poetry. However, feudal Edo period lasting from 1615 to 1868 brought huge popularity to it and made it a self-sufficient genre (Sher), which was later renamed by Masaoka Shiki. Gilbert and Yoneoka provide a quotation of R. H. Blyth describing the peculiar qualities of Haiku that – according to his statement – made this poetic form unique and so popular: â€Å"It is not merely the brevity by which [the haiku] isolates a particular group of phenomena from all the rest; nor its suggestiveness, through which it reveals a whole world of experience. It is not only in its remarkable use of the season word, by which it gives us a feeling of a quarter of the year; nor its faint all-pervading humour. Its peculiar quality is its self-effacing, self-annihilative nature, by which it enables us, more than any other form of literature, to grasp the thing-in-itself†. Therefore, it could be stated that the main peculiarity of haiku lies in its succinct nature and intense effect produced on the reader. Haiku as a rather free and expressive poetic form contributed to democratization of Japanese poetry and

Natural Magic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Natural Magic - Essay Example Bauer (1997) posited that â€Å"from Shapins perspective, the historical notion of the Scientific Revolution which is commonly taught to school children as more or less a cataclysmic event in which the modern world of science/rationality defeats the medieval world of religion/occult is incorrectly portrayed† (p.1). Modern science today would prove most of the knowledge of these fields as superstition, but there should be some credit given. It could be said that without these ancient forms of pseudoscience, modern day science may have been lost for good. Modern astronomy owes its existence to astrology in understanding how the universe outside our world affects us. Alchemy can be linked to the modern science of chemistry. However, the most crucial value of these pseudo-sciences is the model it has in getting results through experimentation, trials and testing, observation and making hypothesis. While not intentionally having a scientific nature, these pseudo-sciences helped developed the foundation in which modern sciences can build

The Outsider - Oral Report Essay Example for Free

The Outsider Oral Report Essay Mersaults final and most significant revelation occurs at a point in his life where his execution is imminent. This revelation comes in the form of acceptance and understanding. At this point in the novel, he is thinking of his mother, experiencing the natural world around him, and coming to terms with his fate and resigns to it, as he has done during all other struggles he has had to face, trivial as they may have been by comparison. But this time rather than accepting it out of indifference, he accepts it by becoming a part of it. Whilst awaiting his execution, Meursault for the first time in a very long time thinks of his mother. Here, he comes to understand that no one at all had any right to cry over her, because she died at a point where she was ready to live her life again and Meursault feels the same. Rather than feeling unmoved by his mothers death and indeed her existence, he empathises and finds salvation in being able to relate his final days with hers. This shows how he has moved from being an outsider to feeling connected to his place in the system of humanity. Meursault is strongly affected by the natural world around him, but in the last few passages of the novel he finds union and peace with nature. Throughout the novel, Meursault is constantly being affected by the blinding heat of the sun, or the bitter salt of the ocean burning his lips. However, he chooses to react to it physically rather than experience it. When he describes the natural world outside during the last hours of his life, he finds it soothing and peaceful, rather than irritating. He is a part of it, he likes it and he feels it. This shows that he has embraced the natural world and become a part of another system of the universe, much the same as he relates to his mothers cycle of life. Rather than remaining emotionally disconnected and only physically hindered, he finds nature soothing and chooses to become a part of it. Meursaults final wish was for there to be a crowd of spectators at his execution and that they would greet him with cries of hatred. The fact that this thought makes him feel less lonely supports Meursaults strive to experience things honestly, without compromising his reason. He recognizes his role in society and feels comforted by being a part of it. He desires an honest reaction from the spectators in order to feel less alone, which shows the comfort he has found in accepting the truth of the final stage of his existence. The final few paragraphs of the novel show the final stage in Meursaults acceptance of everything around him, through which he finds a way of understanding and connecting with the cycle of life.

Social, economic and political factors of crime

Social, economic and political factors of crime For many, there is the belief that the existence of punishment is linked to the problem of crime, and that the extent of crime is the key factor in determining the level of punishment. But some of the most important sociologists (and penologists) such as Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and Michel Foucault argue that crime is relatively trivial, and that the form and degree of punishment in society must be understood through its relationship with other greater social, economic and political factors. Karl Marx was a 19th century sociologist and economist whom were interested in the role punishment held in class-based social and economic regulation. He criticized the failure of penal theory to consider the social factors, especially economic inequality and poverty, which underlay criminal activity. Using this framework, others such as Georg Rusche and Otto Kirchheimer, in Punishment and Social Structure (1939), looked at the formation of different forms of punishment in the context of the labor markets fluctuating needs, from the Middle Ages through to contemporary society. For example, imprisonment serves as both a practical source of inexpensive labor for the state and, during periods of high unemployment, as a method of incapacitating dangerous offenders from doing public harm. These Marxist ideals influenced historical changes in penology in Western Europe beginning in the Middle Ages into the Mercantilist Era. During the early middle ages, there was a bot (betterment) paid by the criminal to the offended party which gave rise to the idea of compensation and a wite was a fine paid to the King. These fines were forms of tiered punishments that varied depending on ones socioeconomic class. For upper-class/freed citizens, punishment was given in compensation fines, but for lower-class/slaves punishment was much more brutal in the form of corporal death. These practices carried into the late middle ages and into the Mercantilist Era (1400-1700s). As middle-age feudalism declined, capitalism (as focused on by Marx) and international trade rose and expanded to new heights. These economic changes influenced the creation of new, wealth merchant class and the vagabond poor. Vagabonds were displaced workers from the former agricultural-run society of feudalism, who were now non-productive in a commercially dominant Western culture. This led to the widespread belief that work was to be associated with morality (17, BL). The poor, criminal vagabond social class we re exploited and sentenced as laborers. Karl Marx asserted that punishment could be used to force people to work as here in the case where vagabonds worked in galleys as reliable workforce, served in workhouses in Great Britain to help change and reform their character, and transportation where criminals were sent away for manual labor to help meet the needs of growing American and European colonization. Durkheim The Father of Sociology published several works during his time, however, none has had more impact than his book, The Division of Labor in Society written in 1893. Here he rejected the idea that punishment must break away from either vengeance or the emotional satisfaction it gives. Durkheim believed that the social function of punishment was to give effect to the moral and emotional outrage of a society whose norms have been violated by the criminal act. A criminal act is therefore identified as that which affects the communitys collective conscience; criminality serves as a way to explain the moral limitations of the social group. Punishment is the reciprocal effect of a collective moral outrage, creating and sustaining a type of solidarity crucial to the existence of a functional society. From these ideas arises Durkheims theory of social solidarity, as shown in his work The Two Laws of Penal Evolution, (1902) whereby he states that despite changing penal methods overtime , the underlying mechanisms and functions of punishment remain constant. Social solidairty insisted that rather than focusing on either the crime (or the criminal), one should observe the after-affect of crime on victims and the community as a whole. Offenders must be held accountable to these victims, and part of their penalty may involve direct restitution. The goal is begin a process of restoring the trust and solidarity that is broken by criminal activity by focusing on the social relationships that have been harmed as a result of crime. Durkheims scientific study of penology led to the conclusion that the severity of punishment was diminishing, and that solidarity could be broken into two categories: mechanical and organic solidarity. He called mechanical solidarity the solidarity of sameness which organic solidarity was made up of differences. The idea behind this is that organisms are made up of parts that serve different functions but manage to work together. In relation to society, Durkheim stated society was based on the division of labor, and is reliant on the communitys mutual dependency on one another. Although before the time of Durkheim, these same theoretical ideas can be seen in Colonial and Federalist America. This period included the early settling of colonists in areas such as Massachusetts and Virginia (17th and late 18th centuries), where society was dominated by the institutions of church, family and most importantly community. While religion played an important role in determining punishment, punishment was more so based on the social reaction to crime. Crime was religiously reflected as sin and as a moral matter of right versus wrong. Methods of punishment included fines (to victims most commonly), whippings, mutilation, shaming and banishment. Discipline and punishment held a significant role in social solidarity by publicly demonstrating rules, and expressing moral outrage over wrongful acts in a collective manner. These principles can also be applied to provide insight in the American Temperance Movement of the 1830s. As democratization increased as the nation expand ed economically and socially, religion still held a high importance that reflected in how crime was seen. Crime was viewed a moral disease, and more specifically alcoholism was becoming a national epidemic. The American Society for the Promotion of Temperance declared that, all temperate people should remain so and that the others should kill themselves off (50 BL). Alcoholism was collectively viewed as having a linkage to crime that caused labor to decrease which consequently affected American economic prosperities. These abolition and temperance movements of the 1800s were representative of social and moral reform going on within American culture. Michel Foucault was a 20th century French sociologist who argued that punishment is a threat to society, and that discipline is power-knowledge mechanism for domination. Foucault is well-renowned for his 1977 book entitled, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, where he questioned how penology has changed in the way criminals are punished (in France) and introduces disciplinary punishment as the dominating practice in the modern world. He identified a qualitative shift in punishment from 1750 and 1820 in Europe and the U.S, pointing out three major changes: (1) punishment changed from body to soul/psyche, (2) from vengeance to transformation and (3) from punishment to corrections. In the second part of his book, Foucault marks the prison as the template for the technology of modern discipline. Disciplinary punishment gives professionals (psychologists, program facilitators, parole officers, etc.) power over the prisoner, most notably in that the prisoners length of stay dep ends on the professionals judgment. Foucault goes on to argue that Disciplinary punishment leads to self-policing by the populace as opposed to brutal displays of authority from the earlier eras. He utilized supervision, assessments, timetables and detailed attention to efficiency as tools for his studies of penology. Such ideas influenced the technology used in prisons such as Jeremy Benthams Panopitcon. The Panopticon, usually located in the center of a prison floor consisted of a single guard who could watch over many prisoners while remaining hidden. Ancient prisons have been replaced by clear and visible ones, but Foucault cautions that visibility is a trap. It is through this visibility, Foucault claims, that modern society exercises its controlling systems of power and knowledge. Increasing visibility leads to power located on an individualized level as shown by the possibility for judicial institutions to monitor individuals throughout their lives. Foucault suggests that a carceral continuum or a carceral archipelago runs through modern society, from the maximum security prison, through secure accommodation, probation, social workers, police, and so on into our daily working and home lives. All are joined together by the supervision (surveillance, application of social/moral norms of acceptable behavior) of some humans by others. Although the methods in which these sociological theorists approached penology, their ideas helped influence and change the way in which we [as society] view crime and the correlation it holds with punishment. These dominant theories shaped the evolution of American and European penal history which reflected the social, cultural and moral reforms of their times in relation to crime and the administration of punishment. Essay Two Punishment in Ancient European society was brutal and based primarily on private vengeance. Retaliation was violent and often community participation was encouraged. These tribal communities settled their conflicts through blood feuds held in public areas. These feuds, however, did not follow every crime. By 700 A.D. people mediated their offenses through fines. These were called bots (meaning betterment) and were paid to the offended party, while wites referred to fines paid to the King. These fines were highly discriminatory based on social-class structure. Penology practices then began to evolve as attempts were made to match the severity of offenses with the severity of the punishment itself such as in the Roman Justinian Code of 529 A.D. Punishment served as a way to uncover the truth behind crimes, sometimes through compurgation where witnesses were presented on behalf of the accused through trials by ordeal. Punishment was administered through torture if found guilty. The Early Middle Ages (700-1000) was defined as a power struggle between the church and society. The church was so powerful at the time that it had its own system of justice governed by the bishops and clergy. During this time, the church introduced the benefit of the clergy that gave protection from prosecution for church members and leniency to other related groups. Punishment was issued in the form of confinement rather than corporal punishment because the church believed that, such punishment would inevitably lead to the offenders despair, which impeded the ability to repent (15, BL). Only secular courts had the right to executions or any blood shed. Mutilation was popular to match the sanction with the crime (e.g. liars tongues cut out). Banishment and fines were still present. The Late Middle Ages (1100-1300s) signified a time of change in European history as the Church (sacred) power began to decline in daily social life, and with this, began the rise of the secular State pow er. Despite this decline, the church continued to use even more torturous, brutal punishment especially during the period of the Inquisition (13th-15th centuries) to weed out heretics. The end of the medieval period is marked within the social and economic changes brought on by the Mercantilist Era from 1400s-1700s. This era represented a decline of feudalism amongst society hierarchy, and gave birth to the rise of capitalism. Capitalism spread as globalization and commercial activity and trade increased. Power passed into the hands of the wealthy, known as the merchant class. This dissolution of feudalism and a once, agriculturally dominated society brought forward a number of displaced, non-productive people who were very poor called the vagabond poor. These people were focalized in crime and punishment, which gave rise to the understanding the conditions of this social class by learning how they became to be vagabonds. This questioning reflected the importance of work, for work was associated with morality. These vagabonds thus threatened society as a result they were exploited to working within the galley, workhouses and transportation. Transportation especiall y served as a means for states to solve crime problems by sending criminals away to the new colonies for indentured labor. There are several historical trends that can be identified from Ancient society to the end of the Medieval ages. First, there was a decline in direct participation by the community and by victims in primitive European societies. Secondly, there was a direct shift from private vengeance to church power during the Early Middle Ages. The Middle-Ages was a time where general deterrence was essential to preventing crime by instilling fear within the people after witnessing brutal, torturous penal practices. The Late Middle Ages through the Mercantilist Era was characterized by the growing popularity of state and secular justice over the church, and the rise of crime and punishment focused on labor. By the end of the 1700s, secular authorities controlled social classes by transporting criminals and vagabonds overseas to colonies, or by holding them in galleys and workhouses where they were incapacitated to extensive labor. Changing gears from Europe to Colonial America (1600-1790), the new nation was dominated by three primary social institutions which included church, family and community. Crime was viewed as sin and punishments mostly served religious ends, directly or indirectly in nature to reflect the laws and morals of the time. Colonial American society was centered on religion, where there was the mentality of, God wants people to behave a certain way, and it is the peoples job to set morality and justice. Punishment was administered for many common offenses and resulted in fines, shaming, whippings and sometimes exile. Executions were made public in order to have an educational purpose where community was intended to learn, however, intentional cruelty behind corporal punishment decline. The rise of the new nation could not have evolved without the presence of European Enlightenment Ideas in the American colonies. The prominence of human reason served as a tool to battle ignorance, superstition and tyranny targeted mainly in religious and hereditary aristocracy. Crime and punishment evolved to becoming a philosophy of understanding the offender. This gave birth to the first modes of classical criminology that assumed all people were rational beings that must be equated with a balance between crime and punishment. Ideas such as these enlightened moderation of punishment to focus on rationality and more importantly, efficiency. Punishment was concealed behind bars in prisons where criminals were to be held separate from society as a means of incapacitation. Early prisons and other penal institutions, such as the penitentiaries increased incarceration in America. Together the Colonial Ages and American Federalist period (1790-1830) marked a time of social reform where there was the suppression of the emotional purposes of punishments and execution to a newfound emphasis on their instrumental purpose instead. Criminals were to be understood rationally taking into account human reason, and crimes were to be administered fairly with a balance between offense and sanction. Punishment was morally defined. Punishment and reform in 19th century America (1830-1880s) prospered with the shift from prison-to-penitentiary. Societal influences included: alcoholism, gangs, and immigration. The Temperance and Abolitionist movement deemed alcohol use as moral failings/disease in society. Punishment revolutionized out of Enlightenment ideals that focused on democratization where society was governed by the people. Crime was spreading and was soon viewed as moral and social pathology. It was believed that crime could be combated with the help of penitentiaries. The goals of these institutions were to reform criminals through routine, surveillance and discipline. Blomberg and Lucken best define crime as: criminal activity was attributed to human interactions with a morally depraved environment (61). This penal ideology spread into Progressive America where crime and punishment were studied with science to understand criminality through biological, psychological and sociological reforms. From the Pr ogressive Movement into 20th century America, there flourished the proliferation of penal services (parole, probation, indeterminate sentencing, prison specialization min., med., max.). This ideology focused on social and moral reform as well by introducing reformatories (not vengeance), specializing and professionalization in prisons and a growing focus on juvenile and female offenders. Academic and medical questioning ruled criminology, the understanding of offenders and how to treat prisoners which lasted until the 1960s. The 1970s is best defined as a time of American Liberalism. Within society there were cultural changes taking placing as social activism and protest amongst all groups civil rights, women, prisoners, etc. Growing emphasis was put on prisoners issues and rights and through this we [society] made attempts to understand the internal and external relations of offenders with society. Decentralization emerged with the idea of Less is Better where importance was aimed at the criminal justice system through reforms such as net-widening that identified people who were at high risks to commit crimes, and deinstitutionalization of juveniles (not behavior that determines crime, age status instead). The 20th century was a change to rehabilitative and specific deterrence amongst criminals. From the 1980s to the present, crime increased as political and social turmoil grew in America. The war on crime that evolved with the staggering drug use of the 80s was counteracted with the conservative backlash by the government that installed harsher prison sentences focused on retribution, deterrence and incapacitation (three-strikes rule, mandatory minimums, etc). Increasingly so, social inequality is the underlying factor of high imprisonment rates amongst the poor and minorities. Privatization of prisons and companies led to a culture of greed that resulted in growing crime rates. This soon led to the collapse of the rehabilitative ideal into the era of get tough punishment and law and order punishment that was termed Neo-Conservative criminology. Essay Three Jails and prisons were among the first public structures built in colonial America. Besides serving as a place for emigrants, jails were an essential part of the system of bondage that existed in America. At a time where the dominating institutions consisted of the church, community and family, any crime committed was viewed as sin. Criminal activity was reflecting religiously onto the community as a whole. Executions were carried out for ordinary crimes other than murder, under local rather that state authority, and were made public. Punishments focused on retribution rather than understanding the crime, or the criminal. There began a shift from the 18th century to 1789 after the ideas of the Enlightenment reached the western world. The belief in human reason and rationality governed all aspects of life, especially penology. As a new nation emerged, penal practices changed to view criminals as rational beings, and an increased notion that there should be a balance between crime and punishment so it can be efficient. In regards to capital punishment, people felt it did not equate with the democratic ideals founded within our nation and it was in fact ineffective as a deterrent. From this point until the 1900s into the Progressive Era, crime changed and adapted according to the cultural changes that corresponded. Americas growing population boom, immigration increase, industrialization and urbanization were all factors in growing incarceration rates. Over time, prisons trended towards becoming more pervasive, more secure, and more permanent. In contemporary America there is a growing sense that the cost of fighting of crime, incarceration and rehabilitative services is spiraling out of control. There are more criminals, more courts, more prisoners and more anger as society focuses on the criminal as the cause for the economic collapse and downturn. The most recent historical factors that have led to todays conditions begin in the 1960s the age of disconnect where many significant changes to societal norms started. These included the civil rights movement, freedom of the individual, increased used of illegal substances, changing attitudes to sex and sex education, and in general, a focus on a more liberal and less-controlled societal model. During this period America experienced a debilitating military conflict (Vietnam), a break-down of the family unit as defined in separation statistics, and a core change in the role of women in society. At this time there was substantial focus upon prisoner rights, focus upon rehabilitative rather than punitive punishment ideals and a number of inside-prison demonstrations and even rioting against the methods of incarceration being used. Americas death penalty collapsed after the Furman v. Georgia decision where it was nullified and made unconstitutional. By the end of the 60s and 70s this era of liberalism was being pointed to as the cause of other significant societal problems crime being one of the most prominent. The 1980s witnessed a major shift back towards a more conservative America. The war on crime changed from one focusing on rehabilitative and (what caused) criminal activity to one that called for substantially-increased reliance on incarceration and an almost sole focus upon stopping the activities of criminals. Through a combination of sentencing guidelines (mandatory minimums, truth-in sentencing, three strikes) the aim was clear. By incarceration, clearly, the activities of the individual criminal were curtailed through incapacitation. There was little, if any concern, on rehabilitation and many argue upon humane treatment. Against this trend American society experienced large swings towards materialism, a lifestyle of financial improvement without concern for the morality of society as a whole (Boesky). These changes led America to become entrenched in a culture of greed where inequality between social and economic classes rose enormously, and so began the widespread politicization of criminal justice as crime was brought to political form. Beginning with the Reagan administration, the political goals, reflecting societys attitudes were quite evident. There were to be more incarcerations for more criminals for more offenses with greater sentences and less focus on parole provisions and rehabilitative treatments. These Get Tough penal philosophies exploded after the war on drugs invaded America as more people (many minorities) were being arrested and placed in prisons for much harsher sentences. Because of the increased prison population numbers, there was the need to specialize prisons based on the type of crime/the incarceration period imposed. This included a tiering, or separation of prisons into three divisions: minimum, medium and maximum facilities. The societal shift continued through the Bush (senior) administration and into the 1990s, where theories of penology are characterized by culture of control (BL). Control, in this context means: reinforcing more rigid guidelines for sentencing, more inflexible guidelin es towards rehabilitative treatments, and in general, a harsher, punitive mindset towards criminals. The changing economic climate has now introduced a move towards privatization. Privatization is a desire to outsource the management of prisons and criminals away from the state. Because the goals of private enterprise are profit-based, this suggests a shift to penology model with even less of a concern upon prisoners rights, rehabilitative treatments and any actions outside strict profit-based incarceration. Essay Four From colonial times to contemporary society, American penal history has undergone significant changes. Various penal innovations have been presented, some of which have had major impact on penology as a whole. Many of the thoughts and beliefs from Europes Age of Enlightenment carried onto the new-world, which helped birth the flourishing democratic ideals founded in the United States. The Enlightenment (18th century to 1789) was characterized by the belief in human reason and rationality. In regards to judicial reform, the goals of this era were to form a better world by using human reason to combat the negativities of ignorance, susperstition and tyranny that governed old monarchial practices. It also sought to target religious and hereditary aristocracy to create a more socially and economically equal society. The Enlightenment gave American penal policy and practices the push it needed to moderate punishment on the basis of rationality and efficiency. As a result most notably criminals were viewed as rational beings; punishment was to be efficient and logical, discipline changed from being public to conceal all factors which led to the early emergency of the prison and growing incarcer ation. The presence of enlightenment ideas in America influenced sociologists of the early 20th century such as Max Weber and Norbert Elias. Both sociologists studied the science of punishment by observing penal and other worldly changes from 19th century onwards leading towards rationality. Elias in particular held the notion that Western societies have become more civilized. This notion followed the trends of punishment, which he believed were reflected in the changing sensibilities in the civilizing evolution of Western culture. Despite there being a tension between moral imperative and bureaucratic management of the more highly privatized modern world, discipline was starting to be rationalized in a scientific, logical manner for means of justifying penal practices. Such social and moral reforms influenced the rise of one of the most prominent penal innovations the American penitentiaries of the 1800s. During such times crime was seen as a moral and social pathology. In the 1820s, two variants, the Pennsylvania System and the Auburn System competed for the role of best in the handling of the incarcerated population in America. The silent method of the Pennsylvania System required absolute silence, complete lock down in a solitary environment and produced mental problems at a rapid rate. It was espoused by the religious zeals such as the Quakers who felt that prisoners would be rehabilitated by that system. The belief was that silence and isolation helped criminals reflect on their crime alone. The Auburn System was seen as more cost effective because it required labor which offset the cost of prison housing. Auburn introduced uniforms, the lockstep and harsh punishment for minor infractions. The idea in the Auburn system was that silence, working together and discipline could yield reform in criminals. These two great penitentiaries were based on the ideas enveloped within each giv en region in America. In the North, rehabilitative ideals aimed to change/transform individuals, while the South adopted a convict lease system built on the slavery model that influenced penal reform to exploit labor to satisfy economic and political means. In truth, neither penitentiary created a model prisoner or one that entirely rehabilitated. The debate continues today between those that argue in long sentences and those that want reform. The importance in such an innovation was that it reflected the beliefs and ideals of democratization and moral reform of the 19th century. It exemplified the prisoner as a rational being that could and must be studied to explain criminality, diagnose and treat and then correct the criminal through rehabilitation. The second penal innovation grew out of former rehabilitative penal practices into the Progressive American Era (1880s-1930s) that theorized crime through biological, psychological and sociological factors for better understanding. These beliefs introduced positivist criminology, which asserted faith in the scientific study of criminals and crime through classification. In relation to penal ideology, it created reformatories, indeterminate sentencing, parole and probation. Punishment was less punitive and searched for the causes, treatment and corrections of criminals, especially juveniles. This movement led to the Juvenile Court Reform Movement. The Juvenile Court Movement lasted for nearly sixty years, beginning in 1900. Juveniles were seen as lost children who required guidance and whose crimes were subject to indeterminate sentencing to show leniency on the behalf of courts in hopes that treatment could help transform the characters of such offenders. This movement revolved around the rehabilitative ideal centralized in society as this time that claimed human behavior was a product of antecedent causes which could be identified, classified in accordance to specific scientific treatment, which could then be treated therapeutically. The importance behind the juvenile court movement is that it launched the specialization of penal practices. For example, the term prison guard expired and advanced to corrections officer. The term corrections emerged as professionalization and bureaucratization was introduced (as seen in Weber). Next, the treatment of offenders was individualized and penal services were broadened to accompany f or the various causes of criminal behavior, and was more accessible than ever before. Prison specialization led to the classification and division of these institutions into minimum, medium and maximum facilities governed by corrections officers with the aid of psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, vocational counselors, etc. Although the innovations of the juvenile reform movement and the progressive era were promising, by the late-20th century, America was headed towards decentralization. Criminologists and penologists created labeling theories that took focus away from the offender and onto the criminal justice system as an entity. Net-widening occurred in penal reforms that formed programs that identified people who were considered at high-risk to commit crimes. There began an academic focus on social control that influenced the contemporary penal model characterized by Get Tough punishment. Policy makers have implemented multiple-strategies approach to combat crime including: retribution, incapacitation (search for habitual offender), deterrence (escalation of penalties), restoration and rehabilitation (214). Present-day America has evolved to become a culture of control and greed (211, BL). Truth-in-Sentencing standards and Three-Strikes Laws were some of the few penal methods introduced in the 1980s to curb crime rates and put habitual offenders away for longer periods of time. Truth-in-sentencing refers to policies and legislation that aim to abolish or curb parole, so that convicts serve the period that they have been sentenced to. Three-Strikes law statutes enacted by state governments in the UHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_StatesS require the state courts to hand down a mandatory and extended period of incarceration to persons who have been convicted of a serious criminal offense on three or more separate occasions. Restorative justice has also been implemented recently that puts criminals up against the state, holding the criminal accountable through highly retributive means. These various methods comb